UNDERSTANDING THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT

 C H A P T E R - II

UNDERSTANDING THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT

 

 Dilip Changkakoty

(This image is courtesy of Google)

The ancient popular names of Assam were Prāgjyōtiṣă and Kāmărūpă. In the scripture Ăṣțādhyāyī by Pāṇini, the term Sūrămăsă refers to Assam¹. Additionally, in Kautilyă’s Ărthăsāstră, it is known as Pāră-lauhityă². Also, the medical treatise Hăstī Āyurvēdă by Sage Pālăkāpyă addresses this region as Lauhityă³.

 

These two words, Prāgjyōtiṣă and Sūrămăsă, indicate the realm of astronomy, celestial bodies, and the study of the Sun's movements. The Sun is also called Sāmă. Sāmă is related to the Sāmă Vēdă, a part of which is a hymn called Gītă. When it produces sound, it creates a note (sbără), and the Sun itself resonates with the sound 'Om' for the purpose of wandering, hence the Sun is also referred to as a sbără. Therefore, this 'Om' is the immortal sbără, and this 'Om' sound signifies the eternal and fearless. Through this 'Om' sound, entry is made into the invincible realm of divine rays.

 

By pronouncing 'Om,' chanting of Sāmă is performed, and this chanting leads towards the Sun. "Sā" represents nature or the unchanging eternal power, while "ăm" signifies the soul that is present within the solar system. As the world's soul takes on the form of the Sun, it becomes Sāmă. As the Ṛk mantras sing the Sāmă, it is through the Ṛks that Sāmă and the Sun are interconnected. Because the Sun is Sāmă, that is, 'Om,' and as the Sun exists as the life force (prāṇă), it resonate 'Om' and diffuses through this living body. As the Earth, the celestial realm, and the cosmic space are interrelated and unified, the 'Om'-shaped Sāmă Saṃgītă or Sūrya Saṃgītă resonates everywhere, establishing itself universally.

 

There are three pieces of evidence that tell us about the presence of ancient music, known as Sāmă Saṃgītă, in historical region of Kāmărūpă.

 

First Testimony: The earliest evidence comes from a scripture called Găjă Āyurvēdă or Hăstī Āyurvēdă. It was written by Sage Pālăkāpyă, the son of Sāmăgāyăkă⁴. The scripture mentions that they lived by the River Lōhityă in Surămăsă, which was the old name for Kāmărūpā. Since Sage Pālăkāpyă's father was named Sāmăgāyăkă (which means a singer of Sāmă), it's likely that Sāmă Saṃgītă was practiced even before Sage Pālăkāpyă's time.

 

Second Testimony: The ancestor of Kāmărūpā's Emperor Bhāskărăvărmā was Bhūtivărmā (518 – 542 CE). An inscription known as the Bărgamgā inscription⁵ from Emperor Bhūtivărmā's time, mentions his accomplishments. In this inscription, the emperor is described as victorious in Ăsbămēdhă. This means that Emperor Bhūtivărmā was skilled in performing the Ăsbămēdhă yăjňă, which requires Sāmă Saṃgītă. This indicates that Sāmă Saṃgītă was present in Kāmărūpā during Emperor Bhūtivărmā's rule.

 

Third Testimony: Another piece of evidence comes from the Kālikāpurāṇăm, a composition by Măhărṣi Mārkăṇdḥēyă in the seventh centuries. This work contains Sāmă songs in several verses⁶, showing that the practice of Gāthā (singing) was widespread in Assam during that time. The source of the Sāmă songs is the Gāthā.

 

In summary, these pieces of evidence show that Sāmă Saṃgītă was an integral part of ancient Kāmărūpā's culture and rituals, as seen through scriptures, inscriptions, and ancient texts.

 

The Sāmăvēdā serves as the origin of the Gāndhărvvă-vēdā, also known as the Nātyă-vēdā. This Nātyă-vēdā is more commonly recognized as the Nātyăśāstră, and it was authored by the sage Bhărătā⁷. According to his teachings, the entirety of India was divided into four distinct regions or Prăbŗttis⁸. These Prăbŗttis encompassed distinct regions: the first three being Āryyăvăttă located in the northern Ganges basin, Dăļinātyă situated on the southern Deccan plateau, and Pāňcālā-Mādhyămā spanning across the western Indus River. Towards the eastern side existed the Ōdră-Māgădhī region, extending from the foothills of the Himalayas in Kashmir to Prāgjyōtiṣă and the eastern parts of modern Bihar, Bengal, and Orissa, including Tibet? This expansive region was home to 21 distinct indigenous states known as Măhājănăpădăs. These Măhājănăpădăs included names like Ăṅgă, Băṅgă, Kăliṅgă, Vătsă, Ōdră, Māgădhă, Puṇḍhḥră, Nēpālă, Ăntărgiri, Băhirgiri, Prăvăṅgă, Măhēndrā, Mălădā, Măllăvărtăkă, Brăhmōttărā-Bhārgăvā, Mārgāvā, Prāgjyōtiṣă, Pulindā, Vidēhā, Tāmrăliptā, and Prāṅgā⁹.

 

The presence of Kashmir and Tibet in Ōdră-Māgădhī holds special significance, especially concerning their connection with Prāgjyōtiṣă. In the writings of Kăhălānă, a respected scholar from Kashmir's royal court, we encounter intriguing accounts of individuals linked to both Kashmir and Kāmărūpā. Ămŗtăprăbhā, the queen of Kashmir and a princess of Kāmărūpā, as well as Staunăpā, the esteemed royal mentor of Kāmărūpā, are portrayed vividly in the Rājă-Tărăṅginī¹⁰. During that era, their influence extended widely within Kashmir. Similarly, the esteemed Kāmărūpā monarch Bhāskărăvărmā (600 – 650 CE) receives honorable recognition in the work "Kuttănīmătăm," composed by Dāmōdără Guptă, a prominent minister in the Kashmiri royal council¹¹.

 

Staunăpā, conversely, hailed from Lōh, or Tibet. Throughout history, this Tibet has shared close ties with Kāmărūpā. Notably, Tibet's association with notable Căryāpădă authors like Mīnānāthă, Luipādă, Sărăhăpādă, Śāntipādă, Dōmbipādă, Dhēndhănăpādă, and Măhidhărăpādă further underscores its connection with Kāmărūpā¹².

 

A remarkable account also recounts the route taken by the fleeing Koch king Nărăsiaṃhă to Kashmir¹³ in the sixteenth century; a route previously traversed by the revered Buddhist Guru Pădmăsămbhăvă or Rimpoche. The narrative suggests that Guru Rimpoche hailed from Kāmărūpā and eventually rested in the sacred town of Hajo.

 

From the aforementioned historical evidence, various practices of Sāmă Vēdă, Gāthā, Căryāpădă, and dance in royal assemblies have been observed in Assam. The royal court of Assam and the monasteries also engaged in the study of music as prescribed in scriptures. Music was an integral part of worship, learning, and spiritual practice. After, the era of the Kāmărūpā monarch Bhāskărăvărmā, the composition known as Kālikāpurāṇa also belongs to that time.

 

Around 1985 or 1986, there was an incident in Chandmari Colony, Guwahati. A stationary goods seller was engrossed in reading a large book with a red cover. I looked at the book with curiosity – it was the Kālikāpurāṇa by Sage Mārkăṇḍēya, published by Nababharat in Kolkata. I had known that the Kālikāpurāṇa held mythological information about Assam. However, what surprised me was that the book was about Assam, yet published in West Bengal, and the commentary was entirely in Bengali! This made me speculate about the preferences and interests of the people from Bengal.

 

At that time, I was around 25 or 26 years old. During the autumn season's Goddess Durgā Pujā, many colleagues were planning to go to Kolkata to witness the pujā. Due to family difficulties, I couldn't join them. Instead, I gave some money to a friend and asked him to buy a copy of Kālikāpurāṇa for me if he visited the Nababharat Publication on College Street in Kolkata. Our friends shared that when my friend asked for the Kālikāpurāṇa, the shopkeeper declined, and saying he was too young to read tantric books. This incident piqued my interest in the book even more. The following month, I ordered the book through a postcard.

 

I read the Kālikāpurāṇa countless times and committed every letter to memory. In the book Săttrīyā Nŗtyă Aru Săttrīyā Nŗtyără Tālă by the respected Late Dr. Maheshwar Neog, it was mentioned that there were 108 hand gestures in the Kālikāpurāṇa. I specifically focused on verses 29 and 30 from chapter 66, which emphasized these gestures¹⁵. It was said that there were 55 different worship-related gestures and 53 gestures for other purposes such as representing items, eyes, symbols, dances, and so on. This deepened my understanding of the intricacies of the book.

 

My excitement grew. I became more engrossed in the book. I read every word attentively, noting down one gesture in chapter 53, fifty-six in chapter 66, two in chapter 72, and seven in chapter 74. Altogether, there were 66 hand-gestures described in detail, along with their applications.

 

Historians have informed me that the Kālikāpurāṇa dates back to the 7th century. Interestingly, during the reign of the Vārmānā dynasty from 350 to 650 CE, which was the era of the Great Bhāskărăvărmā, the dancers of the Kāmărūpā region, part of which is present-day Assam, were renowned across India. It's remarkable to learn that the hand-gestures described in the Kālikāpurāṇa were already being utilized during the rule of the Vārmānā dynasty.

 

Building upon this historical context, I began to delve deeply into the four special chapters of this scripture. Upon completing my study, I carefully selected 100 verses related to hand-gestures.

 

Saofa Su-Kham-pha Khoraraja (1552 – 1603 CE) invited our forefather Gopaldeva Bhattacharya, who hailed from Kaonaj and served as a Chaturbadi at the Krishna Janambhumi Temple in Mathura, to the Ahom kingdom. In 1585, as Gopaldeva couldn't make the journey, his son Nitai was sent to the Ahom kingdom. I, Dilip, am the eleventh generation descendant of Nitai Bhattacharya. In the Ahom kingdom, Nitai Bhattacharya was entrusted with the role of Changkakoty, which involved writing papers within the King's Chang or Royal Palace. This is the reason for my social identity being recognized as Dilip Changkakoty, and I am known by this name in the society. Within my family, I am nicknamed Thaneshwar. Thus, I am Dilip Changkakoty, also known as Thaneshwar Bhattacharya or Thānēśbără Bhățță.

 

In 1998, I transcribed 100 verses from the Kālikāpurāṇa under the name Thānēśbără Bhățță. This project involves working with the book Mudrādhyāyă – Kālikāpurāṇa by Măhărṣi Mārkăṇḍēya, incorporating 100 verses from the Kālikāpurāṇa along with their English explanations. The purpose of this book is to provide insights into ancient practices and to contribute notes and tips to enhance understanding.

 

The completion date of the book was Wednesday, February 9, 2000, which coincided with Srīpăňcămī Tithi, a day dedicated to the worship of Goddess Sărăsbătī.

 

Mudrādhyāyă is divided into two sections – the Pre-section and the Post-section. The Pre-section delves into the meaning of mudrā or hand-gesture, discussing the number of gestures, their names, and their uses. On the other hand, the Post-section focuses on the comprehensive exploration of 66 hand-gestures, categorized into three parts: combined Hand-gestures (1), individual Hand-gestures (2), and combined seated Hand-gestures known as Āsănă-ăvălămbăṇă (3).

 

The Kālikāpurāṇa offers a clear definition of mudrā. Displaying this mudrā brings joy and pleasure, encompassing aspects of religion, economy, sexology, and salvation. By demonstrating this mudrā to deities, one can invoke the joy associated with these dimensions. There exist a total of 108 such mudrās, with 55 intended for worship and 53 serving to signify time, substances, eyes, signals, buttons, and more.

 

Contrarily, the Kālikāpurāṇa explicitly discusses only 66 mudrās by name. It remains silent on the names, details, and applications of the remaining 42 mudrās. Now we proceed to a brief discuss the relevance of gestures in communication and rituals during that era.

 

What is Mudrā?

Mudrā refers to a special hand gesture that brings about a sense of joy. When a worshipper offers Mudrā to the eager deity during a ritual, the deity grants blessings related to four aspects: Religion, Economy, Sexology, and Salvation.

 

How many Mudrās are there?

There are a total of one hundred and eight Mudrās. Among these, fifty-five (55) Mudrās or hand gestures are used during worship ceremonies, while the remaining fifty-three (53) Mudrās find application in various contexts such as time, substances, eye expressions, signals, and actions. These can be observed in various depictions of the Goddess Durgā. They are used to symbolize connections rather than being considered in isolation. The additional fifty-three (53) Mudrās or hand gestures can be employed alongside the intended purpose of invoking the Goddess Durgā in different scenarios.

 

Names of Hand-gestures

There are various hand-gestures known as Mudrās. Let's explore some of them: (1) Dhēnu (Cow): This is the first hand-gesture. (2) Sămpuță (Small Box): Representing the second gesture. (3) Prāňjăli (Respectful Greeting): This is the third gesture. (4) Bilbă (Offering): Coming in at fourth place. (5) Pădmă or Pădmăkă (Lotus): Number five on the list. (6) Nārācă (Cobra): Occupying the sixth spot. (7) Muṇḍă (Bald Head): This is the seventh gesture. (8) Dăṇḍă or Dăśă (Staff): Listed as the eighth gesture. (9) Ărdhăyōni [Măhāyoni]: The ninth hand-gesture.

 

These are the first nine hand-gestures. Let's continue: (10 Băndănī or Băndhănī (Binding): Number ten on the list. (11) Măhāmudrā (Great Seal): The eleventh gesture. (12) Măhāyōni or Yōni (Symbol of the Divine Feminine): Representing the twelfth gesture. (13) Bhăgă (Sharing): This is the thirteenth hand-gesture. (14) Puțăkă or Prăkăță (Pointer): Coming in at number fourteen. (15) Niṣaṃgă or Nisaṃgă (Detachment): The fifteenth gesture. (16) Ărdhăcăndră (Half-Moon): Occupying the sixteenth spot. (17) Ăňgă (Fire): Listed as the seventeenth gesture. (18) Dbimukhă (Two-Faced): This is the eighteenth gesture. (19) Săṅkhă (Conch Shell): The nineteenth hand-gesture. (20) Muṣțikă (Fist): Representing the twentieth gesture. (21) Băjră (Thunderbolt): The twenty-first gesture. (22) Răndhră or Āvăddhă (Piercing): Number twenty-two on the list. (23) Şățăyōni or Yōni (Hundredfold Symbol): Coming in at twenty-three. (24) Bimălă (Pure): This is the twenty-fourth gesture. (25) Ghăță (Pot): The twenty-fifth gesture.

 

These are the initial twenty-five hand-gestures. Let's continue: (26) Śikhăriṇī (Crested): Representing the twenty-sixth gesture. (27) Tuṅgă (Mountain Peak): The twenty-seventh gesture. (28) Puṇḍră (Mark on Forehead): Number twenty-eight on the list. (29) Ărdhăpuṇḍră or Ărdhădhēnu (Half-Mark): This is the twenty-ninth gesture. (30) Sănmilănī (Joining): The thirtieth hand-gesture. (31) Kuṇḍă (Pot): Representing the thirty-first gesture. (32) Căkră (Wheel): The thirty-second gesture. (33) Sūlă or Dhēnu (Trident): Number thirty-three on the list. (34) Siaṃghăbăktră or Siaṃghă (Lion's Roar): This is the thirty-fourth gesture. (35) Gōmukhă or Bhăgă (Cow's Face): The thirty-fifth gesture. (36) Prōnnāmă or Prōllāsă (Joyful Greeting): Representing the thirty-sixth gesture. (37) Unnămănă (Nod): The thirty-seventh gesture. (38) Bimbă (Red Lips): Number thirty-eight on the list. (39) Pāśupătă or Pāśupātă (Lord of Animals): This is the thirty-ninth gesture. (40) Śuddhă (Pure): The fortieth gesture.

 

These are the first forty hand-gestures. Let's continue: (41) Tyāgă (Renunciation): Representing the forty-first gesture. (42) Sārăṇī (Refuge): The forty-second gesture. (43) Prăsārăṇī (Expansion): Number forty-three on the list. (44) Ugră (Fierce): This is the forty-fourth gesture. (45) Kuṇḍălibyūhă or Kuṇḍăli (Coiling Serpent): The forty-fifth gesture. (46) Trimukhā (Three Faces): Representing the forty-sixth gesture. (47) Āsivallī (Benediction): The forty-seventh gesture. (48) Yōgă (Union): Number forty-eight on the list. (49) Bhēdă (Discrimination): This is the forty-ninth gesture. (50) Mōhănă or Sănmōhănā (Enticement): The fiftieth gesture. (51) Bāṇă (Arrow): Representing the fifty-first gesture. (52) Dhēnu (Bow): The fifty-second gesture. (53) Tūṇīră (Twig): Number fifty-three on the list. These are the total fifty-three hand-gestures mentioned above.

 

In addition to these, there are three more hand-gestures: (54) Vaiṣṇăvi (Related to Goddess Durgā): This is the fifty-fourth gesture. (55) Dăļiṇā (Dakini): Representing the fifty-fifth gesture. (56) Prāňjăli (Respectful Greeting): The fifty-sixth gesture.

 

Moreover, there is one more hand-gesture known as:  (57) Kācchăpă or Kūrmă (Tortoise): This is the fifty-seventh gesture.

 

In the category of Yoni (Symbol of the Divine Feminine) mudrās, there are eight types mentioned earlier: (58) Khēcărī Yōni Hăstămudrā: The second one. (59) Guhyăyōni Hăstămudrā: The third one. (60) Triśāṅkărī Yōni Hăstămudrā: The fourth one. (61) Śārdī Yōni Hăstămudrā: The sixth one. (62) Mūlă Yōni Hăstămudrā: The sixth one. (63) Măhāyōni Hăstămudrā: The seventh one. (64) Yōgiṇī Yōni Hăstămudrā: The eighth one.

 

In total, there are sixty-four Hăstămudrās, including these. Apart from these, there are two more hand-gestures: (65) Ābhăyă (Fearlessness): The sixty-fifth gesture. And (66) Bărădā (Protection): This is the sixty-sixth gesture.

 

Use of Hand-gestures

Hand-gestures, like Dhēnu, Sămpuță, and fifty-five others, find their purpose in various practices such as worship, contemplation, meditation, yoga, chanting, and connecting with divine figures like Goddess Vaiṣṇăvi and Goddess Dăļiṇā. While chanting, practicing prāṇāyăma, engaging in worship, performing yoga, and finding your meditation posture, hand-gestures play a vital role, complementing these actions. These gestures hold significance, enhancing the overall experience.

 

In scenarios where actions of the hand aren't naturally involved, one can introduce mudrās by using both hands. The same hands that partake in rituals like sacrifice can skillfully perform these hand-gestures. Therefore, initiating a ritual, like an yăjṅă, with the display of mudrās is advised. Bearing mudrās during worship is crucial, as the act of deity worship without incorporating these gestures loses its effectiveness. It's important to note that while immersion rituals often involve mudrās, the same may not be necessary during worship.

 

The eight types of Yoni mudrās mentioned earlier are specifically employed in practices related to the worship, recollection, and reverence of the Goddess Căṇḍikā. It is recommended to incorporate these Yōni hand-gestures during immersion rituals. To prevent unnecessary strain, those who have insight into these practices should refrain from applying hand-gestures exclusively used in worship. This cautious approach ensures that the essence of the mudrā is respected.

 

In essence, hand-gestures hold a significant role: they contribute to the spiritual and ceremonial aspects. They offer a pathway to connect with divine energies, enhance rituals, and bring about a sense of purpose and meaning to various practices.