Keywords : Sāmgān, Sāmaveda, Bargīt, Sattriya tradition, Vedic chanting, Rāga-based framework, Bhakti rasa, Intangible cultural heritage, Brahmavāda, & Bhaktimārga
Abstract:
This
paper investigates the deep-rooted connection between Sāmgān, the
ancient Vedic chanting tradition preserved in the Sāmaveda, and Bargīt,
the sacred musical repertoire of the Sattriya
tradition in Assam, India. By examining the melodic grammar, spiritual
function, and performative structure of both forms, the study reveals
continuities that transcend temporal and regional boundaries. While Sām Gān
was employed as liturgical chant in sacrificial Vedic rituals with a rigid
tonal system defined by udātta, anudātta, and svarita, Bargīt—developed
by Śaṅkaradeva and Mādhavadeva—adopted rāga-based
frameworks that convey bhakti rasa in
Sattra performances. This comparative
study highlights how Vedic tonal aesthetics might have influenced the mnemonic
oral patterns and devotional usage of Bargīt,
particularly in its emphasis on purity of sound (śabda) and spiritual
intent (bhāva). Through textual analysis, musical comparison, and
selective fieldwork data from Sattra
institutions, the paper identifies possible evolutionary pathways from Vedic
ritual song to regional devotional music. The research contributes to the
broader discourse on the transmission of intangible cultural heritage in India
and underlines the philosophical continuity between Brahmavāda and Bhaktimārga.
The findings suggest that Bargīt, while distinctly regional and shaped by
Assamese cultural ethos, embodies echoes of the Vedic past, thereby reinforcing
the composite spiritual-musical lineage of India’s sacred traditions.
1.0 Introduction:
1.1
Overview of Sāmgān and Bargīt:
The
foundation of Indian music lies in the Sāmaveda, where Sāma Saṅgīta—a musical form aligned with the Sun’s
movements—emerged as one of the earliest expressions of classical (mārgiya)
music. (1) This spiritual and
cosmological music, rooted in sacred Vedic language, reflects the universe’s
order and truth through sound. Reserved for wise practitioners of hymns and
rituals, it embodies radiant energy and deep metaphysical ideas.
One of the
most powerful emotional expressions in Indian aesthetics is Bhakti Rasa,
the sentiment of loving devotion. It goes beyond ordinary emotion, merging
spiritual yearning with artistic pleasure. In Assam’s Sattriya
tradition, Bhakti
Rasa finds voice through Bargīt—devotional songs by saints Sankardeva and Madhavdeva—performed
in sacred gatherings. These songs are sung following strict musical rules,
preserving their spiritual and cultural essence.
1.2
Importance of liturgical music in Indian traditions:
Worship
music in India has long been tied to the Vedas, evolving from Sāmaveda
hymns into rich devotional forms like Bhajan, Kirtan, Bargīt, and Abhang. These forms play a vital role in spiritual
life, offering emotional connection with the divine, preserving regional
languages, rāgas, and oral traditions, and serving as a pillar of India’s
Intangible Cultural Heritage.
1.3
Research questions and objectives:
This study
investigates the connections between Sāmgān, the Vedic chant tradition, and Bargīt,
focusing on musical structure, rāga-tāla systems, yati (movement of tempo), performance contexts, and spiritual
philosophy. Through interviews and textual analysis, it explores whether Bargīt
carries Vedic elements like udātta, svarita, and stobha, as well as methods of oral transmission,
emotive expression (bhāva), and pedagogic practices. The aim is to
understand if Bargīt
represents a living continuation or reinterpretation of Vedic chanting and how
it contributes to India's musical and spiritual heritage.
2.0
Historical Background:
2.1 Origin and development
of Sāmgān in Vedic literature:
Samgān, the sacred chant tradition of the Sāmaveda, evolved from Ṛgvedic hymns set to
melody and sung by udgātṛ priests during Vedic sacrifices. The Sāmaveda
comprises two parts: gāna (melody) and ārcika (recitation), with two main traditions—Grāmgeya
(public rituals) and Āraṇyageya (solitary spiritual practice). Mantras were
transformed into music through metrical alterations, tonal variations, and
added melodic syllables. Of the thirteen historical branches, only Kauthuma, Rānāyanīya, and Jaiminīya
survive, each with distinct Brāhmaṇas
and Upaniṣads. The chant system
includes seven musical limbs (anga) and reflects sophisticated use of Vedic meters.
Philosophically, Samgān embodies the cosmic vibration of Om,
symbolizing the unity of breath, sound, and solar energy as Brahman. It is thus not only ritualistic
but a spiritual bridge between the human and the divine. Samgān laid the foundational ethos for Indian classical music,
integrating cosmic principles with sound and sacred intention.
2.2 Historical emergence of
Bargīt in the Bhakti era:
The Vaishnava devotional songs composed by Sants Sankaradeva and Madhavadeva
in the Bajrāvali - a literary
dialect blending Assamese and Maithili - are called Bargīt. These songs were performed
according to the customs of classical (Mārgian)
music of the time of their composition, that is, 15th-16th
century. Therefore, these songs were called Bargīt
using the word "Bar" which means Mārgi, Elder, Classic & others.
These songs are performed mainly to create devotional charm. These devotional
songs are practiced in the Sattras (monastic
institutions) or Nāmgharas
(prayer
halls) of the Vaishnava community of Assam. It becomes a vehicle for spiritual
awakening, ethical reform, and cultural unification. Bargīt thus stands as a central expression of Assamese Bhakti culture and its musical heritage.
The region of Northeast
India—particularly Assam, historically known as Prāgjyotiṣa—bears
profound archaeological and cultural testimony to its ancient existence, extending
back to the Stone Age. This continuity is substantiated by the presence of
megaliths and monoliths across the region. A particularly striking example is a
2,500-year-old monolith discovered at Amsai Pinung in Umswai village, inhabited
by the Tiwa community of present-day West Karbi Anglong district in Assam.
The term Prāgjyotiṣa,
the ancient name for Assam, etymologically denotes "the eastern land where
astronomy is studied." This nomenclature reveals a significant historical
relationship between the region and the advanced study of cosmic sciences. In
Vedic terms, astronomy was not limited to empirical observation but constituted
a holistic science intertwining cosmic geometry, physics, mathematics, and
metaphysical dimensions such as relativity and quantum principles. Within this
context, Prāgjyotiṣa emerged as a center for the study and practice of
cosmic acoustics—an area encompassing the exploration of primordial sounds like
Oṁ, Huṁ, and Hrīṁ, understood to carry both vibrational
and spiritual properties.
The Vedic liturgical
music known as Sāma-gāna (or Sūrya-gāna) served as a practical
manifestation of this cosmic science. References to the tradition of Samgān
are found in the inscriptions of Bhutivarman, the ancient king of Kāmarūpa, in
treatises such as the Hasti-Ayurveda of the sage Pālakāpya, and in the Kālikā
Purāṇa, underscoring the deep-rooted musical-spiritual traditions of this
region.
These primordial sounds
and their acoustic principles gradually evolved into structured musical forms—Gātha,
Prabandha-gāna, and eventually Dhrupada (also termed Dhravapada-gāna).
The Prabandha-gāna, in particular, became the stylistic foundation for a
variety of classical forms. Notably, the Bargīts composed by polymaths
Śaṅkaradeva and Mādhavadeva in the 15th–16th centuries embody the formal and
stylistic features of Prabandha-gāna, thereby linking them directly to
the ancient tradition of Samgān. Their compositions are rendered in a
classical language known as Brajavālī and performed according to the
musical conventions prevalent in the late medieval period.
From a metaphysical
standpoint, the universe is permeated by cosmic particles in constant motion.
When these particles interact with cosmic sound vibrations, they activate a
positive and perceptible resonance in the individual—leading ultimately to a
heightened spiritual experience. In this sense, whether through Samgān, Prabandha-gīt,
or Bargīt, the musical process is seen as a vehicle toward
transcendental realization.
According to Bharatamuni,
the cultural and musical instincts of Prāgjyotiṣa belong to the Odramagadhī
school, which also includes regions like Aṅga, Vaṅga, Kaliṅga, Nepal and
others. In this eastern corridor, Jayadeva’s Gīta-Govinda (12th century)
stands as a seminal work, composed and performed in the Prabandha-gāna
style. The continuity of this tradition is evidenced in the Saṅgīta-Dāmodara
of the 13th-century poet Śubhankara. Even the eminent Koch general Śukladhvaja
(Chilarāy) composed a commentary titled Sāravatī on the Gīta-Govinda,
elaborating on its melodic and rhythmic structures. Thus, the Prabandha-gāna
tradition, prevalent from the 12th century onward, not only attained classical
(Mārgīya) status by the 16th century but also directly informed the
musical structure and devotional aesthetic of the Bargīt tradition of
Assam.
3.0
Theoretical Foundations:
3.1 Musical grammar of Sām Gān:
The musical grammar of Samgān is one of the oldest and most
refined systems of structural melodies in the Indian musical tradition. It
isn’t like the recitation of the Rig-Veda. The Rig-Veda highlights intonation. Samgān, on the other hand, is based on a
specific melodic structure known as saman. This Samgān uses specific melody patterns (Svaras) and rhythmic units (padas,
stovas). Each hymn is transformed
into a chant by elongating literary syllables (aļr) as well as inserting
musical syllables (aļr) following melodic formulas through oral tradition.
These chants were used by trained expert Udgatra priests to invoke cosmic
order during Vedic sacrifices. In fact, this musical system laid the foundation
of Indian classical (Mārgiya) music.
It established key concepts like note gradation, melodic variation, and
into-national precision. The perfection and depth of Samgān reflects a sacred worldview. It becomes a bridge between
music, human and the divine. As well as, embodying both spiritual purpose and
technical sophistication.
3.2 Notational and rāga-based
framework of Bargīt:
In the
tradition of Bargīṭ, each composition
is typically structured within a defined rāga and tāla framework, thereby
establishing a distinctive melodic and rhythmic architecture. This adherence to
formal grammar reflects its classical and devotional character. However, in the
case of Prasangya Bargīṭ, a more flexible interpretative approach is
observed. Here, the vocalist may render the same composition through multiple
rhythmic cycles, akin to the Prabandha Gīt tradition, adjusting
the melody to reflect the emotional tone or thematic mood as the stanzas
progress. Notably, sections may be sung in Anibaddha Tāla—free rhythm—enhancing
the expressive latitude of performance. Unlike spontaneous or folk forms of
devotional music, Bargīṭ upholds a
disciplined musicality while invoking profound spiritual sentiment. It draws
upon rāgas such as Kalyan,
Gauri,
Āśāvari,
and others, with an emphasis on tonal purity, lyrical clarity, and devotional
intensity. Though orally transmitted, its performance is marked by consistency
and melodic precision, preserved through memory and disciplined practice. The
use of rāga-based structures and
notational frameworks in Bargīṭ not
only safeguards its sanctity but also fuses Bhakti Rasa with
classical aesthetics, culminating in a refined musical-spiritual expression
unique to the cultural heritage of Assam.
4.0
Comparative Analysis:
Sāmgān, the sung form of the Sāmaveda, and Bargīt, the devotional music tradition of medieval Assam developed
by the polymaths’ Śaṅkaradeva and Mādhavadeva, represent two distinct yet
spiritually resonant streams within the broader continuum of Indian sacred
music. Although separated by time, region, and theological context, these
traditions exhibit significant parallels in their melodic structures, mnemonic
techniques, and ritual functions—suggesting a shared aesthetic and spiritual
ethos deeply rooted in the Indian liturgical imagination.
4.1 Melodic Contours and Tonal
Structuring:
At the core of both Sāmgān
and Bargīt lies a meticulously defined melodic grammar. Sāmgān is distinguished by its use of three tonal inflections—udātta
(raised), anudātta (lowered), and svarita (falling)—which govern the
pitch modulation essential to accurate Vedic recitation. These tonal accents
are not ornamental but semantically and phonetically integral to the meaning
and efficacy of the hymns. In Bargīt,
melodic identity is achieved through the systematic application of rāga, each embodying a distinct
emotional landscape and spiritual mood (bhāva). While Bargīt exhibits more ornamentation than the austere Sāmgān, it often retains a
contemplative, linear tonal flow akin to the ascending and descending patterns
found in Vedic chant. This structural similarity underscores a shared
commitment to tonal clarity and purity, vital to the devotional and didactic
functions of both traditions.
4.2 Mnemonic Syllables and Liturgical Phrasing:
Both systems are anchored in oral transmission and rely
heavily on mnemonic strategies. In Sāmgān,
stobha
syllables—such as ho, i, au—are inserted within
verses not for semantic value, but to guide melodic transitions, maintain
metric cohesion, and assist in memory retention. These syllables function as
auditory anchors, stabilizing the chant’s sonic architecture. Bargīt, although composed in lucid
Assamese and Brajavali idioms, employs repetitive refrains (dhruvapadas)
and strict metrical structures that aid memorization and sustain rhythmic
integrity. In both traditions, these mnemonic devices support ritual fidelity
and ensure intergenerational continuity within a non-textual pedagogic
framework.
4.3
Oral Tradition and Ritual Space:
Sāmgān and Bargīt are not merely
musical forms but integral components of sacred ritual contexts. In Vedic
sacrifices, the udgātṛ priests chant Sāmgān
as a means of invoking cosmic forces, believing the sacred sound to mediate
between the terrestrial and the divine. Similarly, Bargīt is performed in prasaṅgas and sattras, where the
communal act of singing fosters collective devotion and moral reflection. In
both cases, the performance space—be it the Vedic yajña-vedi or the
Assamese namghar—becomes sanctified through sound, functioning as a
spiritual soundscape that mirrors and reinforces cosmic order.
In essence, despite divergences in theological orientation
and musical elaboration, Sāmgān and Bargīt reveal a profound congruence in
their structural precision, oral discipline, and sacral function. They
exemplify a pan-Indic continuity wherein music transcends aesthetics to become
both a medium of spiritual realization and a vessel of cultural memory.
The spiritual and performative dimensions of Sāmgān and Bargīt continue the Intangible Heritage Sacred Musical traditions of India. Both of them are embedded within a framework of behavior that transcends aesthetics. Also, it encompasses spiritual intentions rooted in liturgical and devotional praxis.
In the Vedic context, Sāmgān forms a distinct genre of chanting derived from the Sāmaveda. It is performed during the yajñas (sacrifice) by the Udgātṛ priests during the sacred offering of Somraşa. Sāmaveda’s music is not for entertainment or personal expression. Rather, it was designed to invoke cosmic order (ṛta), channel divine energies, and offer ritual offerings to the gods. The tripartite tone structure of a song is more than the syntax of music. It signals a cosmic worldview, with the Word as the immanent bridge between man and God. Performance here becomes a sacred pronouncement. Also aligns the microcosm of the sacrificer with the order of the macrocosm of the universe.
In contrast, the Bargīts cultivated in the Assamese devotional tradition of polymath Śaṅkaradeva and Mādhavadeva (15th–16th centuries) developed within the performance venues of Nāmghar and Sattra. These Nāmghar and Sattra are an integral part of Ekśaran Nāmdharma. Performed in a rāga-specific manner, these songs are devotional songs addressed to Lord Kṛṣṇa. Often includes subjects describing Lord Kṛṣṇa’s pastimes (God’s play) or expressing the soul’s desire for divine union. The performance of Bargīt is inherently ritualistic, involving structured recitation, communal singing, and accompanying dance (like Sattriya) in Aṃkīya Nāt. Bargīt serves not only as an offering of devotion (bhakti), but also as a means of moral education, spiritual catharsis, and communal solidarity. Like Sāmgān, Bargīt also serves as a performance of spiritual ideals beyond the auditory field.
Crucially, there are cosmological formulas shared underpinning both traditions; especially the philosophy of devotion and Brahmavāda. Bhakti is about an intimate, emotional connection to the divine. In contrast, Brahmavāda asserts the unity of all existence in the Absolute (Brahman). In Sāmgān, this duality is expressed in the goal of reconciling cosmic principles through precisely calibrated words. In Bargīt, it emerges through the application of songs that dissolve the boundaries between the devotee and the divine power. This culminates in the aesthetic and spiritual realization of oneness. Theologically, both systems are vehicles for salvation (liberation). It can be articulated as such through distinct performative idioms—sacrificial chants on the one hand and devotional songs on the other.
This deep-rooted harmony with nature
is reflected in every aspect of their creative expression. Their arts and
culture, subtle in texture and organic in sprit, arise not in isolation from
nature but in communion with it. Such an orientation allows them to become, in
essence, one with the environment – a quality that infuses their cultural
expressions with a certain “heavenly resonance.” This ethereal quality,
embedded in their indigenous traditions, is largely absent in the predominantly
rationalist and materially-driven artistic ethos of the modern west.
These traits find some of their most
exquisite manifestations in the arts and culture of India’s North Eastern
region. To many in the Indian mainland, this natural grace and spiritual melody
are both striking and enchanting. The "heavenly tune" can be
discerned in folk traditions such as Bihu,
Bagrumba, Laihawa, and Nongkhrem,
as well as in classical and semi-classical forms like Bargīt, Devanaţi and the Gīta-Govinda
tradition. In particular, the performance of Bargīt—with its serene cadence and
devotional lyricism—transforms the atmosphere, evoking a sense of divine beauty
interwoven with the living character of nature. This is a rare and precious
contribution of the land and its environment to the arts of the Northeast—an
offering that makes the region, in the realm of aesthetics and spirit, akin to
a terrestrial heaven.
6.0 Fieldwork and Oral Traditions:
6.1 Interviews with Satriya Gayan-Bayan practitioners:
A detailed understanding of the Bargīt tradition requires extensive field research using
ethno-musicological and cultural anthropological methods. In this field
research, our household found many informative experienced singers &
players like Pinaki Changkakati, Durbadutta Changkakati, Durllav Changkakati,
Dr. Debendra Chandra Changkakati, Pulin Changkakati, Maniram Dutta Bayan,
Manirm Dutta Gayan, Bangshidhar Dev-Goswami, Gahan Chandra Goswami, Girikanta
Mahanta, Mitradev Mahanta, Rasheswar Saikia Bar-bayan, Ghanakanta Bora
Bor-bayan, Maheswar Bora Bor-bayan, Madhabh Chandra Bora Bor-bayan, Badan
Chandra Bora Bayan, etc and my Grand-father, father and myself conducted
extensive interviews with them on the Bargīt
tradition. These interviews have revealed important aspects about the modes of
transmission, pedagogical strategies and performative nuances inherent in the
oral tradition of Bargīt. Often the
custodians of multi-generational musical heritage, the informants cited
philosophical and ritual underpinning of Bargīt
that are not always accessible through textual sources alone.
Some of old expertise
described my father that - for the performer to fully embody the Bhakti Rasa
in the rendering of a Bargīt, mere
technical mastery is not sufficient. There must survive a quality of sattva—a state of inner purity and
conscious stillness—that enables the rasa to manifest through the voice and
presence of the singer. This sattvic
state, rooted in both emotional refinement and spiritual awareness,
allows the performer to become a vessel through which the rasa is transmitted.
They again said that - to cultivate such a refined state, two kinds of mentorship are essential. First, a music teacher (guru) is required to guide the singer through the technical
and aesthetic dimensions of the performance—the rāga, tāla, diction, and
compositional structure. Equally important is the presence of a spiritual guide, whose influence
nurtures the inner life of the performer, fostering humility, devotion, and a
meditative focus. Only when these two streams—musical and spiritual—converge in
the performer, does the Bargīt
transcend form and become an act of embodied
devotion, capable of evoking rasa not only in the singer but in the
listener as well.
6.2 Observation of Bargīt recitals
Interestingly, Bargīt are also sung using a practice
known as Rāga Ãlam, wherein a
specific rāga is chosen as an expressive vehicle to enhance the emotive content
of the lyrics. At times, they are rendered in the manner of bhajans,
allowing flexibility of form while preserving the core devotional intent. In
everyday vaishavite Assamese devotee’s life, these songs are often sung in the
early morning or evening by peasants and rural folk in their domestic prayer
rooms, reinforcing the intimate connection between devotional music and the
rhythms of daily life.
Live Bargīt
recitation was observed both in premises of the Nāmghar ceremonies and in more public cultural forums. Here, the
participants are careful to examine performance dynamics more closely.
Performances include the execution of rāgas, rhythmic cycles, and the dialogic
relationship between vocal lines and instrumental music (especially percussion
Khol and cymbal). These observations help to contextualize the stylistic
differences between Sattras.
Otherwise, the subtle improvisational methods preserved within what appears to
be strictly codified traditions are revealed.
6.3 Possible comparative singing examples:
Where practitioners permitted, examples of comparative
singing were recorded. It paid special attention to the performance of similar Bargīts in different rāgas or
interpretive styles according to the Sattra. The material lays the groundwork
for possible musical transcriptions and analytical mapping of melodic and
rhythmic variations. If such a transcription is adopted, it will enable visual documentation
of rāga-architecture and ornamentation. In addition, it will integrate the
oral-auditory experience with the scholarly framework of notation and analysis.
Therefore, the comparative approach opens up a space for dialogue between
regional devotional music and the broader pan-Indian tradition of liturgical
songs such as the Sāmaveda. It focuses on memory, vocalization and spiritual
motivation, especially in terms of their shared dependence.
With this triangular approach, including interviews, observations
and comparative documentation, fieldwork becomes not only a place for data
collection but also a site for dialogical knowledge production. It has
reinforced the living vitality of the Bargīt tradition. It also highlights the
role of oral transmission in sustaining musical heritage. The evidence
collected in the field challenges the reductionist reading of Bargīt as purely
liturgical music. It also positions it instead as a dynamic, multivalent system
that synthesizes aesthetics, devotion, memory, and pedagogy.
7.0 Conclusion: Reaffirming the Shared
Foundations and Expanding Horizons
7.1 Summarizing shared Vedic roots and regional evolutions:
A comparative study of Sāmgān and Bargīt opens up a
continuum between the vedicliturgical soundscape and regional devotional
musical traditions. Both systems exhibit affinities in their use of tonal
hierarchies, oral transmission methods, and ritual insertions. The uses of
fixed and inflected melodies such as udātta, anudātta, and svarita in the
Sāmveda and rāga-specific intonation in the Bargīt-have roots in the ancient
Indian sonic worldview and indicate a common metaphysical-aesthetic level. This
investigation highlights how the Vedic model, despite being fixed or obsolete,
evolves dynamically through regional cultural matrices, exemplified by the
Neo-Vaishnavite transformation of Assam.
7.2 Contribution to the understanding of intangible cultural heritage:
The findings make a
significant contribution to the broader discussion on Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) as defined by the UNESCO and
ICOMOS charters. Preserved through oral instruction, embodied performance and
intergenerational transmission within the living ritual space of the sattra,
Bargīt exemplifies the key criteria of the UNESCO
2003 Convention on the Protection of Intangible Cultural Heritage.
Furthermore, its performative intergration affirms ICOMOS’s emphasis on “cultural continuity” and “ritual topography” as important
dimensions of heritage preservation with local and communal elements. This
study not only helps document a complex musical tradition, but also how
abstract expressions co-construct cultural identities; and also advances
critical reflection on how it informs the narrative of the Cultural Landscape
in specific historical settings.
7.3 Scope for future research:
This research not only confirms the heritage value of
Bargīt, but also opens several avenues for future scholarly inquiry. The
Brajāvalī language, widely used in Bargīt composition, remains an explored
linguistic level – which carries within it remnants of Brajbhāşā, Assamese and
Sanskrit. Thus, it is serving as a textual palimpsest reflecting the cultural
synthesis of Assam. Linguistic and performative analyzes of Brajāvalī can
enhance our understanding of devotional poetics and highly regional literary
movements.
Furthermore, in-depth exploration of Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) and Cultural Tourism (CT) frameworks can provide practical strategies
to the sustainable protection of Sattriya traditions. In line with the ICOMOS International Cultural Charter
(1999), responsible promotion of Bargīt is possible within cultural tourism. It
can facilitate community integration, economic revival, and intercultural
dialogue without compromising the sanctity of traditional practices or the
integrity of educational policies.
Finally, not only as institutions, but also as dynamic
cultural ecosystems, Sattras are seen as a fertile field for multidisciplinary
research. Located within the broader Cultural
Landscape of Assam, the embedded musical, linguistic, and performative
practices of Sattra offer valuable insights into the ways sacred geography,
soundscapes, and community memories converge in the production and perpetuation
of Intangible Heritage. Thus, this
study not only illuminates historical continuities but also lays the groundwork
for critical interventions in heritage policy, cultural studies and musicology.
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