Abstract
This paper examines the traditional techniques of indigenous gold extraction practiced in Assam during the Ahom period, focusing particularly on the Sonowal gold-washing community and the Sonari goldsmiths. Drawing from rare sanchipat manuscripts preserved in private custody, oral traditions, archival notes, the Ahom chronicle Ahomar Din by Hiteswar Barbaruah, British records, and seventeenth-century European travel accounts, this study reconstructs the complex knowledge systems underlying gold extraction from riverine sands. The paper highlights the sophisticated indigenous technologies employed by the Sonowals, their socio-economic organization, the ritual dimensions of their profession, and the administrative framework under Ahom rule that regulated gold production and taxation.
The discussion further explores the craftsmanship of Sonari goldsmiths, their genealogical origins, and the evolution of metalworking traditions in Upper Assam. Using ethnographic, historical, and technological analysis, this study argues that Assam’s gold culture represented a unique convergence of environmental knowledge, hereditary occupational expertise, and royal patronage. It also demonstrates how this once-flourishing craft declined after British annexation due to changing political structures and economic pressures. The paper concludes with reflections on the possibilities of reviving indigenous metallurgical knowledge within contemporary heritage preservation frameworks.
Keywords: Sonowal; Sonari; Gold Washing;
Indigenous Technology; Ahom History; Riverine Metallurgy; Traditional Knowledge
Systems; Assam; Sanchipat Manuscripts; Ethno-history.
1. Introduction
Assam possesses one of the most unique riverine ecologies in the world. Its snow-fed rivers—descending from the Himalayas and coursing through dense forests, floodplains, and alluvial belts—have long carried within them microscopic particles of gold. From at least the medieval period until the mid-nineteenth century, this natural wealth was tapped through an intricate indigenous technology developed by the Sonowal community, a hereditary group of gold-washers who served the Ahom monarchy. Their knowledge, refined through centuries of experience, formed one of the most sophisticated traditional metallurgical systems of South Asia.
The present study is based on multiple rare and diverse sources:
1. a set of privately preserved sanchipat manuscripts containing procedural descriptions,
2. oral narratives handed down through generations of families historically linked to the profession,
3. fragments of anonymous texts and archival notes,
4. the historical chronicle Ahomar Din,
5. British administrative accounts and military reports, and
6. Jean-Baptiste Tavernier’s seventeenth-century travelogue.
Together, these materials offer a near-comprehensive view of the indigenous gold extraction system that thrived under Ahom rule and declined under colonial policies. The paper also incorporates supplementary academic material to strengthen the analysis and meet scholarly standards.
2. Environmental Context and
Indigenous Knowledge
The river systems of Assam are characterized by dynamic geomorphology. Seasonal floods deposit vast quantities of silt, sand, and mineral particles, including gold. The Sonowals identified specific environmental indicators—river curvature, rate of erosion and accretion, texture of newly formed sandbars, and even the behaviour of the water current—to determine gold-bearing zones.
According to oral narratives, balichandā (gold-bearing sand) was believed to be more abundant:
Ø where fast-moving hill streams met the plains,
Ø near river bends where turbulence intensified,
Ø at the confluence of two rivers, and
Ø in areas where fresh sandbars formed after monsoon floods.
This indigenous ecological literacy allowed the Sonowals to locate productive sites without formal geological instruments. Their techniques resemble placer gold extraction practices seen globally, yet possess distinct regional characteristics shaped by Assam’s hydrology.
3. Social Organization of Sonowal Gold Extraction
3.1 Sonowal Pāiks and Administrative
Hierarchy
Under the Ahom paik system, the Sonowals formed a specialized occupational group responsible for extracting gold for the state. The village headman (Mālik) identified extraction sites, while field operations were led by a pati (supervisor). Four Sonowals formed a working unit called a pāli.
The internal hierarchy included:
Ø Pāti: supervisor and instructor
Ø Khelar manuh: labouring members of the community
Ø Leheti carriers: transporters of sand
Ø Diggers: extractors of subsurface coarse sand
Ø Doroni washers: operators of the gold-washing trough
This organizational structure was refined enough to sustain an entire economy of gold production for centuries.
3.2 Ritual Dimensions
Extraction was suspended during sacred lunar days—Amavasya, Purnima, Ekadashi, Sankranti—indicating the integration of cosmology into labour. Such ritual abstinence symbolized respect for the rivers, which were perceived as living energies.
4. Tools, Techniques, and
Metallurgical Processes
4.1 Tools Used
The Sonowals crafted and maintained an entire toolkit:
Ø Bamboo probes: to test subsurface layers
Ø Leheti: a wooden scoop with rope handles
Ø Kuki: sand baskets
Ø Doroni: elongated trough with a 2 cm slit
Ø Perforated pot: to control water flow
Ø Plantain leaves: natural separators
Ø Needles and wedges: for opening crevices
Ø Conch-shell containers: for storing flakes
Ø Snail shells: for heating the mercury-gold amalgam
This demonstrates a sophisticated indigenous technology system.
4.2 Locating Gold in the Riverbed
A long bamboo probe was used to locate a compact layer of coarse sand. Small glittering particles in crevices signaled the presence of gold. Once identified, the Sonowals loosened the layer to allow the river current to wash away lighter material. This collaboration with natural hydrodynamics reveals deep environmental understanding.
4.3 Extraction and Washing Process
The extraction process involved:
1. Scooping loosened coarse sand with the leheti.
2. Transporting sand to the doroni in baskets.
3. Washing and filtering in the doroni using a combination of shaking, stirring, and controlled water flow.
4. Allowing lighter material to escape through the slit while gold-bearing sand settled.
5. Collecting the concentrate onto a plantain leaf, where gold adhered naturally.
6. Storing flakes in a conch shell.
When 40–50 baskets were washed, it was called a śiyā.
A productive site could yield up to one tola of gold per day, especially if untouched for 5–6 years.
4.4 Mercury Amalgamation
Mercury (ānā pārad) was used to bind fine gold particles into a solid amalgam (lodā). Heating the amalgam inside a snail shell on a nahor fire evaporated the mercury, leaving behind purified gold.
This process, while hazardous in modern chemical understanding, was an advanced metallurgical innovation of its time.
4.5 Purity Testing
The remaining ash from the shell was dissolved in water:
Ø Gold that sank was nibhāj (pure).
Ø Gold that floated was bhājgarhita (impure).
Further firing and polishing enhanced lustre.
5. Regional Variations in Gold-Washing
Practices
Different Sonowal groups adapted techniques to local environments:
Ø Kachari Sonowals worked on exposed riverbeds in the dry season.
Ø Raidongia Mel Sonowals used large plantain leaves collected from hills.
Ø Sonowals of Dichang River washed eroded forest soil and debris.
Peak extraction occurred from Magh to Chot (January–April), though some continued into autumn.
The gold of hill-origin rivers—such as Dikrong—was considered exceptionally pure, reinforcing the belief that Himalayan streams carried superior mineral deposits.
6. Economic Importance and Output
Under Ahom Rule
Gold extraction was both an economic pillar and a royal revenue source.
6.1 Quantities Recorded in Historical Accounts
Ø Chakradhwaj Singha: ~5,000 tolas (≈58.30 kg) delivered to state.
Ø Rajeswar Singha: 6,000–7,000 tolas (≈81.62 kg) collected as mohiya (monthly)-tax.
Ø Gaurinath Singha: ~4,000 tolas (≈46.64 kg) annually.
Ø Kamaleswar Singha period (per Pemberton): ~180,000 tolas (≈2,098.8 kg) per year—an extraordinary figure reflecting intensified extraction.
These numbers indicate a flourishing indigenous gold-based economy.
6.2 Taxation Structure
Each Sonowal pāik paid:
Ø 1 tola of gold annually to his official (kheldar bora/saikia).
Ø Additional rati-based tax depending on grade.
Officials also received shares from gold collected, creating a hierarchical distribution from the king to village-level authorities.
Remarkably, the Sonowals did not resent these layers of taxation; instead, they viewed the profession as prestigious and profitable.
7. Decline Under Colonial Rule
After British annexation:
Ø Sonowals were subjected to revenue taxes.
Ø Many were removed from their hereditary occupation.
Ø Riverine gold extraction declined sharply due to administrative restrictions.
By early twentieth century, the profession had nearly vanished.
8. The Sonari Goldsmiths: Craft, Origins, and Evolution
8.1 Early Goldsmiths in Assam
Before the seventeenth century, Sonari goldsmiths already existed but their craftsmanship was considered rudimentary. Their caste origins were unclear because chronicles remained silent.
8.2 New Influences Under Rudra Singha
King Rudra Singha sent Assamese artisans to:
Ø Jaipur (Western India)
Ø Benares (Kashi)
to learn advanced goldsmith techniques.
The artisans—mostly Kalitas and Kayasthas—returned trained, and their descendants became the elite Sonari families of Upper Assam.
8.3 Genealogical Transformation
During Buddhi Swarganarayan’s reign, goldsmiths from Koch Behar migrated to Assam and intermixed with Assamese groups, dissolving their caste identity. As a result:
Ø Present-day Sonaris belong largely to respectable Assamese lineages.
Ø Some Bar-Bhuya clans also integrated into the profession.
8.4 British Observations
Mr. Henniker, ICS, noted:
Ø “There were goldsmiths in the country in the old time, and their work was not fine.”
However, post-Rudra Singha training significantly improved their craftsmanship.
9. Assam as a Land of Natural
Abundance
Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (1676) famously wrote:
Ø “The kingdom of Assam is one of the best countries in Asia… There are mines of gold, silver, lead, and iron, and much silk…”
Tavernier’s account corroborates Assamese chronicles regarding mineral abundance, muga silk production, and the state-controlled nature of gold trade.
10. Discussion: Indigenous Metallurgy
as Cultural Heritage
Assam’s traditional gold extraction system represents:
1. A complex technological process rooted in local ecological knowledge.
2. A hereditary occupation system integrated with the Ahom state economy.
3. A ritual and cultural practice, demonstrating respect for rivers and lunar cycles.
4. A vanished heritage, endangered by colonial economic shifts.
Reviving this knowledge—at least for cultural demonstration and academic purposes—could contribute to heritage preservation, tourism, and Indigenous knowledge studies.
11. Conclusion
The Sonowal and Sonari communities of Assam developed one of the most sophisticated indigenous metallurgical traditions in South Asia. Their riverine gold extraction techniques exemplify a deep understanding of hydrology, mineralogy, and resource management. Supported by the Ahom monarchy, these hereditary artisans sustained a flourishing gold economy for centuries.
The decline of this system under British rule marked the loss of a vital cultural and technological heritage. Today, with renewed interest in intangible cultural heritage—particularly under global frameworks such as UNESCO—there exists an opportunity to document, preserve, and interpret this remarkable tradition for future generations.
Footnotes:
1. Sanchipat
manuscripts consulted belong to a private family archive containing ritual,
technical, and administrative notes.
2. Ahomar
Din, written by Hiteswar Barbaruah, remains a key secondary source for
understanding occupational systems under the Ahoms.
3. Jean-Baptiste Tavernier’s Travels in India (1676) provides one of
the earliest European descriptions of Assam’s mineral wealth.
4. Measurements converted using standard
numismatic ratios: 1 tola = 11.66 g.
5. Mercury amalgamation techniques were historically widespread across Asia but rarely documented in such detail.
i. Barbaruah, Hiteswar. Ahomar Din. Guwahati: Bani Prakash, 1904. ii. Tavernier, Jean-Baptiste. Travels in India. London, 1676. iii. Gait, E. A. A History of Assam. Shillong, 1905. iv. Pemberton, Major R. Report on the Eastern Frontier. Calcutta, 1835. v. Hanney, Captain. Military Records on Upper Assam (unpublished, cited in colonial reports). vi. Henniker, ICS. “Gold and Silver Wares of Assam.” Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 19th Century Issues. vii. Oral histories collected from households traditionally associated with Sonowal and Sonari professions (unpublished). viii. Anonymous Assamese manuscripts on gold extraction (private collection).
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